5M (PYQ)

1. Carriers

Definition. A carrier is a person who harbours a specific infectious agent without showing clinical signs and can transmit the disease to others.

1. Carrier appears clinically healthy.
2. Infection is present without symptoms.
3. Acts as a hidden source of infection.
4. Types include healthy, incubatory, convalescent, and chronic carriers.
5. Common in typhoid, cholera, diphtheria.
6. Carriers help in persistence of disease in community.
7. Detection is difficult due to absence of symptoms.
8. Treatment of carriers is important for control.
9. Personal hygiene reduces carrier transmission.
10. Surveillance helps in identifying carriers.
    Infection → Carrier state → Shedding of organism → Transmission.
    Homeopathic point. Lowered vital force and susceptibility allow carrier state.

2. Cholera

Definition. Cholera is an acute water-borne infectious disease caused by Vibrio cholerae with severe diarrhoea.

1. Transmitted through contaminated water and food.
2. Sudden onset of profuse watery diarrhoea.
3. Rice-water stools are characteristic.
4. Rapid dehydration occurs.
5. Electrolyte imbalance leads to shock.
6. Case fatality is high without treatment.
7. Oral rehydration is life-saving.
8. Antibiotics reduce duration.
9. Sanitation prevents outbreaks.
10. Epidemics occur in poor hygiene areas.
    Contaminated water → Ingestion → Diarrhoea → Dehydration.
    Homeopathic point. Epidemic miasm affects community susceptibility.

3. Hypertension

Definition. Hypertension is persistent elevation of blood pressure above normal limits.

1. Defined as BP ≥140/90 mmHg.
2. Often asymptomatic in early stages.
3. Primary hypertension is most common.
4. Secondary hypertension has identifiable causes.
5. Risk factors include obesity and stress.
6. Excess salt intake increases BP.
7. Leads to heart and kidney disease.
8. Regular screening is essential.
9. Lifestyle modification is first step.
10. Control prevents complications.
    Risk factors → Raised BP → Organ damage.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic miasmatic influence affects vascular balance.

4. Cold Chain

Definition. Cold chain is a system to keep vaccines potent by maintaining required temperature.

1. Maintains vaccine effectiveness.
2. Temperature range is 2°C to 8°C.
3. Includes storage and transport.
4. Cold rooms store bulk vaccines.
5. Refrigerators store vaccines at PHC.
6. Vaccine carriers transport vaccines.
7. Ice packs maintain temperature.
8. Break in cold chain damages vaccines.
9. Temperature monitoring is essential.
10. Proper handling prevents wastage.
    Manufacturer → Storage → Transport → Beneficiary.
    Homeopathic point. Preservation of potency parallels preservation of vitality.

5. Census

Definition. Census is complete enumeration of population at a specified time.

1. Conducted every ten years.
2. Provides population size data.
3. Gives age and sex distribution.
4. Shows literacy status.
5. Provides occupational details.
6. Helps in health planning.
7. Basis for resource allocation.
8. Assists in policy making.
9. Covers entire population.
10. Provides baseline statistics.
    Preparation → Enumeration → Analysis → Publication.
    Homeopathic point. Population constitution guides community care.

6. Prevalence

Definition. Prevalence is total number of existing cases in a population at a given time.

1. Measures disease burden.
2. Expressed as proportion.
3. Includes old and new cases.
4. Depends on incidence.
5. Depends on duration of disease.
6. High prevalence indicates chronic disease.
7. Useful for health service planning.
8. Used in chronic conditions.
9. Influenced by treatment success.
10. Reflects community health status.
    Incidence + Duration → Prevalence.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic prevalence indicates deep miasmatic roots.

7. Spectrum of Health and Disease

Definition. Spectrum of health and disease is a continuous range from perfect health to death.

1. Health and disease are dynamic states.
2. No sharp dividing line exists.
3. Includes positive health.
4. Includes average health.
5. Includes sickness and disability.
6. Influenced by environment.
7. Influenced by lifestyle.
8. Movement occurs over time.
9. Prevention shifts spectrum towards health.
10. Basis of holistic care.
    Positive health → Illness → Disability → Death.
    Homeopathic point. Aim is movement towards positive health.

8. Vitamin A

Definition. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for vision and immunity.

1. Important for night vision.
2. Maintains epithelial tissues.
3. Deficiency causes night blindness.
4. Leads to xerophthalmia.
5. Common in children.
6. Found in green leafy vegetables.
7. Animal sources include liver.
8. Supplementation prevents blindness.
9. Excess causes toxicity.
10. National programme addresses deficiency.
    Deficiency → Eye changes → Blindness.
    Homeopathic point. Nutritional harmony supports vitality.

9. ESI Act

Definition. ESI Act provides social security benefits to industrial workers.

1. Applicable to organized sector.
2. Covers sickness benefits.
3. Covers maternity benefits.
4. Covers employment injury.
5. Provides medical care.
6. Includes cash benefits.
7. Funded by contributions.
8. Improves worker health.
9. Reduces economic burden.
10. Promotes social justice.
    Employment → Contribution → Insurance → Benefits.
    Homeopathic point. Social support enhances holistic wellbeing.

10. Balanced Diet

Definition. Balanced diet supplies all nutrients in required proportions.

1. Provides energy needs.
2. Supports growth.
3. Maintains immunity.
4. Includes carbohydrates.
5. Includes proteins.
6. Includes fats.
7. Includes vitamins and minerals.
8. Prevents malnutrition.
9. Varies with age and work.
10. Essential for health maintenance.
    Food intake → Nutrient balance → Health.
    Homeopathic point. Diet sustains vital force.

11. Warning Signals of Poor Mental Health

Definition. Warning signals are early signs of disturbed mental wellbeing.

1. Persistent sadness.
2. Excessive anxiety.
3. Sleep disturbances.
4. Appetite changes.
5. Irritability.
6. Poor concentration.
7. Social withdrawal.
8. Fatigue.
9. Decline in performance.
10. Substance abuse.
    Stress → Emotional imbalance → Mental illness.
    Homeopathic point. Mental symptoms reflect inner disharmony.

12. UNICEF

Definition. UNICEF is a UN agency working for child welfare.

1. Focuses on child survival.
2. Promotes immunization.
3. Improves nutrition.
4. Supports maternal health.
5. Ensures clean water.
6. Promotes education.
7. Protects child rights.
8. Provides emergency relief.
9. Works globally.
10. Partners with governments.
    Assessment → Planning → Action → Evaluation.
    Homeopathic point. Child development is holistic growth.

13. Prevention and Control of Acute Diarrhoeal Disease

Definition. Acute diarrhoeal disease is frequent passage of loose stools of short duration.

1. Common in under-five children.
2. Causes dehydration.
3. ORS is main treatment.
4. Zinc reduces severity.
5. Breastfeeding prevents diarrhoea.
6. Safe water is essential.
7. Sanitation reduces spread.
8. Hygiene prevents infection.
9. Early treatment saves life.
10. Health education is vital.
    Diarrhoea → Dehydration → ORS → Recovery.
    Homeopathic point. Restoration of balance aids recovery.

14. Biostatistics

Definition. Biostatistics is application of statistics in health sciences.

1. Collects health data.
2. Organizes data.
3. Analyzes data.
4. Interprets results.
5. Supports research.
6. Helps in planning.
7. Assists evaluation.
8. Measures disease frequency.
9. Guides decision making.
10. Improves health outcomes.
    Data → Analysis → Interpretation → Conclusion.
    Homeopathic point. Accurate observation is core principle.

15. Drug Addiction

Definition. Drug addiction is dependence on psychoactive substances.

1. Causes physical dependence.
2. Causes psychological dependence.
3. Affects mental health.
4. Leads to social problems.
5. Adolescents are vulnerable.
6. Peer pressure contributes.
7. Prevention through education.
8. Deaddiction needs counselling.
9. Rehabilitation is essential.
10. Relapse is common.
    Use → Dependence → Addiction → Harm.
    Homeopathic point. Addiction reflects disturbed mental plane.

16. Primary Health Center

Definition. PHC is basic rural health unit providing primary care.

1. First contact point.
2. Serves rural population.
3. Covers preventive care.
4. Covers curative care.
5. Implements national programmes.
6. Staffed by medical officer.
7. Provides MCH services.
8. Refers serious cases.
9. Promotes health education.
10. Strengthens community health.
    Community → PHC → Referral.
    Homeopathic point. Emphasis on preventive holistic care.

17. Antenatal Care

Definition. Antenatal care is care given to woman during pregnancy.

1. Ensures maternal health.
2. Ensures fetal health.
3. Early registration is important.
4. Regular check-ups are needed.
5. Detects high-risk cases.
6. Provides supplements.
7. Prevents complications.
8. Promotes safe delivery.
9. Reduces maternal mortality.
10. Improves birth outcomes.
    Registration → Monitoring → Safe delivery.
    Homeopathic point. Supports natural physiological balance.

18. Protein Energy Malnutrition

Definition. Protein energy malnutrition is deficiency of protein and calories.

1. Common in children.
2. Includes marasmus.
3. Includes kwashiorkor.
4. Causes growth failure.
5. Increases infections.
6. Leads to mortality.
7. Due to poor diet.
8. Due to poverty.
9. Prevented by nutrition.
10. Needs early intervention.
    Poor intake → Malnutrition → Morbidity.
    Homeopathic point. Weak vitality predisposes to disease.

19. Endemic Fluorosis

Definition. Endemic fluorosis is chronic fluoride toxicity.

1. Due to excess fluoride intake.
2. Common in certain regions.
3. Affects teeth.
4. Causes dental fluorosis.
5. Affects bones.
6. Causes skeletal deformity.
7. Occurs via drinking water.
8. Prevention is key.
9. Defluoridation helps.
10. Condition is irreversible.
    High fluoride → Chronic exposure → Fluorosis.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic exposure alters constitution.

20. Prevention and Control of Hazards in General

Definition. Hazards are potential sources of harm to health.

1. Physical hazards include noise.
2. Chemical hazards include toxins.
3. Biological hazards include microbes.
4. Psychosocial hazards include stress.
5. Identification is first step.
6. Risk assessment is essential.
7. Control reduces exposure.
8. PPE protects workers.
9. Health education is important.
10. Legislation enforces safety.
    Hazard → Exposure → Disease → Prevention.
    Homeopathic point. Removing obstacles allows healing.

21. Possible Effects, Prevention and Control of Population Explosion

Definition. Population explosion is rapid and uncontrolled increase in population over a short period of time.

1. Leads to unemployment and poverty.
2. Causes pressure on food supply.
3. Results in housing shortage.
4. Increases burden on health services.
5. Leads to environmental pollution.
6. Reduces quality of life.
7. Family planning prevents population growth.
8. Education delays marriage.
9. Contraceptive use controls fertility.
10. Government policies support population control.
    High fertility → Rapid growth → Socioeconomic problems → Control measures.
    Homeopathic point. Balanced family life maintains social and vital harmony.

22. ICDS

Definition. Integrated Child Development Services is a community-based programme for child health and nutrition.

1. Launched in 1975.
2. Targets children below six years.
3. Covers pregnant women.
4. Covers lactating mothers.
5. Provides supplementary nutrition.
6. Provides immunization support.
7. Promotes health education.
8. Includes growth monitoring.
9. Anganwadi is service center.
10. Reduces malnutrition.
    Identification → Service delivery → Monitoring → Improvement.
    Homeopathic point. Early child care strengthens vitality.

23. Role of Homoeopathy in Prevention and Control of Disease

Definition. Homoeopathy plays a role in disease prevention by strengthening individual resistance.

1. Acts on susceptibility.
2. Enhances vital force.
3. Useful in epidemics.
4. Helps in chronic disease control.
5. Individualized approach.
6. Promotes holistic health.
7. Reduces recurrence.
8. Safe and economical.
9. Supports preventive care.
10. Complements public health measures.
    Susceptibility → Remedy → Improved resistance → Disease control.
    Homeopathic point. Strengthening vital force prevents disease.

24. Concept of Prevention

Definition. Prevention refers to measures taken to prevent occurrence of disease.

1. Aims to reduce morbidity.
2. Aims to reduce mortality.
3. Includes primary prevention.
4. Includes secondary prevention.
5. Includes tertiary prevention.
6. Health promotion is primary prevention.
7. Early diagnosis is secondary prevention.
8. Rehabilitation is tertiary prevention.
9. Cost-effective approach.
10. Improves community health.
    Health promotion → Early detection → Disability limitation.
    Homeopathic point. Prevention aligns with holistic care.

25. Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases

Definition. Epidemiology of infectious disease studies distribution and determinants of infections.

1. Caused by microorganisms.
2. Spread through transmission.
3. Depends on agent factors.
4. Depends on host factors.
5. Depends on environment.
6. Chain of infection explains spread.
7. Surveillance detects cases.
8. Control breaks transmission.
9. Prevention reduces incidence.
10. Basis of public health action.
    Agent → Host → Environment → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Epidemic spread reflects collective susceptibility.

26. Recommended Disinfection Procedures for Faeces and Urine

Definition. Disinfection is process of destroying pathogenic organisms in excreta.

1. Faeces contain pathogens.
2. Urine may transmit infection.
3. Chemical disinfectants are used.
4. Bleaching powder is effective.
5. Phenyl can be used.
6. Proper contact time is required.
7. Safe disposal prevents spread.
8. Hand hygiene is essential.
9. Used in epidemics.
10. Protects public health.
    Excreta → Disinfection → Safe disposal → Prevention.
    Homeopathic point. Clean environment supports health.

27. Epidemiological Features of KFD

Definition. Kyasanur Forest Disease is a viral zoonotic disease.

1. Caused by KFD virus.
2. Transmitted by tick bite.
3. Occurs in forest areas.
4. Affects Karnataka region.
5. Humans are accidental hosts.
6. Fever is common symptom.
7. Hemorrhage may occur.
8. Seasonal occurrence seen.
9. Vaccination prevents disease.
10. Vector control is essential.
    Tick → Human → Infection.
    Homeopathic point. Environmental exposure influences susceptibility.

28. Tetanus – Agent, Host and Environmental Factors

Definition. Tetanus is an acute disease caused by Clostridium tetani toxin.

1. Agent is anaerobic bacterium.
2. Spores present in soil.
3. Enters through wounds.
4. Non-immunized persons at risk.
5. Neonates are vulnerable.
6. Poor wound care increases risk.
7. Unsanitary conditions favor infection.
8. Muscle rigidity is feature.
9. Immunization prevents tetanus.
10. Clean delivery prevents neonatal tetanus.
    Wound → Spore entry → Toxin → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Preventive care protects vital force.

29. Role of Homoeopathy by Genus Epidemicus

Definition. Genus epidemicus is a remedy selected for epidemic disease.

1. Based on collective symptoms.
2. Used in epidemics.
3. Reduces severity.
4. Prevents spread.
5. Acts prophylactically.
6. Selected after observation.
7. Enhances resistance.
8. Safe for mass use.
9. Economical method.
10. Complements public health.
    Observation → Remedy selection → Community protection.
    Homeopathic point. Collective vital response addressed.

30. Biomedical and Ecological Concept of Health

Definition. Health concepts explain factors influencing wellbeing.

1. Biomedical concept views health as absence of disease.
2. Focuses on pathology.
3. Ecological concept includes environment.
4. Balance between man and environment.
5. Social factors are important.
6. Lifestyle influences health.
7. Adaptation is key.
8. Prevention emphasized.
9. Health is dynamic.
10. Holistic approach required.
    Man ↔ Environment → Health balance.
    Homeopathic point. Harmony with nature restores health.

31. Food Classification by Chemical Composition

Definition. Foods are classified based on major nutrient content.

1. Carbohydrate-rich foods give energy.
2. Protein-rich foods support growth.
3. Fat-rich foods provide energy reserve.
4. Vitamins are protective foods.
5. Minerals regulate body functions.
6. Water maintains metabolism.
7. Mixed diet is essential.
8. Deficiency leads to disease.
9. Balanced intake required.
10. Nutrition affects immunity.
    Food intake → Nutrient supply → Health.
    Homeopathic point. Nutrition sustains vital force.

32. Drug Addiction with Environmental Factors

Definition. Drug addiction is dependence influenced by environment.

1. Easy availability increases addiction.
2. Peer pressure contributes.
3. Urbanization increases risk.
4. Poverty influences drug use.
5. Family disintegration plays role.
6. Media influences behaviour.
7. Stressful environment triggers use.
8. Slum areas are vulnerable.
9. Prevention needs social support.
10. Environmental modification reduces addiction.
    Environment → Exposure → Addiction.
    Homeopathic point. Mental environment affects health.

33. Rockefeller Foundation

Definition. Rockefeller Foundation is an international philanthropic organization for public health.

1. Established in 1913.
2. Worked in disease control.
3. Supported hookworm control.
4. Promoted medical education.
5. Improved public health research.
6. Worked globally.
7. Supported training programmes.
8. Strengthened health systems.
9. Encouraged preventive medicine.
10. Contributed to global health.
    Funding → Programmes → Health improvement.
    Homeopathic point. Public health development supports holistic care.

34. Acute Respiratory Infections – Risk Factors and Mode of Transmission

Definition. Acute respiratory infections affect upper or lower respiratory tract.

1. Common in children.
2. Malnutrition is risk factor.
3. Overcrowding increases risk.
4. Poor ventilation contributes.
5. Low immunity increases susceptibility.
6. Transmitted by droplets.
7. Spread through coughing.
8. Close contact spreads infection.
9. Early treatment reduces severity.
10. Immunization prevents some ARI.
    Infected person → Droplet spread → Susceptible host.
    Homeopathic point. Improved resistance prevents infection.

35. Occupational Hazards of Agricultural Workers

Definition. Occupational hazards are health risks faced during farm work.

1. Physical injuries are common.
2. Exposure to pesticides occurs.
3. Dust causes respiratory problems.
4. Heat exposure leads to exhaustion.
5. Snake bites are risk.
6. Skin diseases occur.
7. Noise from machinery harms hearing.
8. Long working hours cause fatigue.
9. Poor sanitation increases illness.
10. Protective measures reduce hazards.
    Exposure → Hazard → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Protection preserves worker vitality.

36. Cohort Study

Definition. Cohort study is an observational study following exposed and non-exposed groups.

1. Starts with exposure status.
2. Participants are disease free initially.
3. Followed over time.
4. Measures incidence.
5. Establishes temporal relationship.
6. Suitable for rare exposure.
7. Can study multiple outcomes.
8. Expensive and time-consuming.
9. Risk ratio calculated.
10. Useful in epidemiology.
    Exposure → Follow-up → Outcome.
    Homeopathic point. Long-term observation reveals disease evolution.

37. Salk and Sabin Vaccine

Definition. Salk and Sabin vaccines are polio vaccines.

1. Salk vaccine is killed vaccine.
2. Given by injection.
3. Sabin vaccine is live vaccine.
4. Given orally.
5. Sabin produces herd immunity.
6. Salk is safer in immunocompromised.
7. Both prevent poliomyelitis.
8. Used in eradication programmes.
9. Cold chain is essential.
10. Mass immunization reduces incidence.
    Vaccination → Immunity → Disease prevention.
    Homeopathic point. Artificial immunity complements natural resistance.

38. Epidemiology of Measles

Definition. Measles is an acute viral infectious disease.

1. Caused by measles virus.
2. Transmitted by droplets.
3. Highly contagious.
4. Common in children.
5. Fever and rash are features.
6. Malnutrition increases severity.
7. Complications include pneumonia.
8. Immunization prevents measles.
9. Epidemics occur periodically.
10. Vitamin A reduces complications.
    Infected child → Droplet spread → Susceptible child.
    Homeopathic point. Epidemic susceptibility determines spread.

39. Types of Accidents

Definition. Accident is an unplanned event causing injury or damage.

1. Road traffic accidents.
2. Home accidents.
3. Occupational accidents.
4. Industrial accidents.
5. Agricultural accidents.
6. Fire accidents.
7. Drowning accidents.
8. Poisoning accidents.
9. Electrical accidents.
10. Prevention reduces mortality.
    Risk exposure → Accident → Injury.
    Homeopathic point. Prevention avoids sudden loss of vitality.

40. Epidemiology of Whooping Cough

Definition. Whooping cough is an acute bacterial respiratory infection.

1. Caused by Bordetella pertussis.
2. Affects children mainly.
3. Spread by droplets.
4. Highly contagious.
5. Catarrhal stage is infectious.
6. Paroxysmal cough is characteristic.
7. Infants are at risk.
8. Immunization prevents disease.
9. Complications include pneumonia.
10. Control by vaccination.
    Infected person → Droplet transmission → Susceptible host.
    Homeopathic point. Strengthening resistance reduces severity.

41. Modes of Intervention

Definition. Modes of intervention are actions taken to prevent or control health problems in a community.

1. Health promotion improves general wellbeing.
2. Specific protection prevents specific diseases.
3. Early diagnosis detects disease early.
4. Prompt treatment reduces severity.
5. Disability limitation prevents complications.
6. Rehabilitation restores function.
7. Community participation enhances effectiveness.
8. Intersectoral coordination is essential.
9. Cost-effective interventions are preferred.
10. Monitoring evaluates outcomes.
    Health promotion → Protection → Early diagnosis → Treatment → Rehabilitation.
    Homeopathic point. Early intervention strengthens vital force.

42. Neurolathyrism

Definition. Neurolathyrism is a neurological disease caused by excessive consumption of Lathyrus sativus.

1. Occurs due to toxic amino acid.
2. Common in famine conditions.
3. Affects lower limbs.
4. Causes spastic paralysis.
5. Young adults are commonly affected.
6. Poverty is major factor.
7. Overdependence on single food causes disease.
8. Irreversible condition.
9. Prevention by diet diversification.
10. Health education is important.
    Excess intake → Neurotoxicity → Paralysis.
    Homeopathic point. Nutritional imbalance weakens constitution.

43. Pneumoconiosis

Definition. Pneumoconiosis is lung disease caused by inhalation of dust.

1. Occupational lung disease.
2. Caused by coal, silica, asbestos.
3. Dust exposure over long period.
4. Leads to lung fibrosis.
5. Causes breathlessness.
6. Irreversible disease.
7. Common in miners.
8. Prevention by dust control.
9. PPE reduces risk.
10. Regular health check-ups needed.
    Dust inhalation → Lung damage → Fibrosis.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic exposure disturbs respiratory vitality.

44. Indicators of Health

Definition. Indicators of health are measures used to assess health status of community.

1. Mortality indicators.
2. Morbidity indicators.
3. Disability indicators.
4. Nutritional indicators.
5. Health service indicators.
6. Environmental indicators.
7. Socioeconomic indicators.
8. Quality of life indicators.
9. Composite indicators.
10. Used for planning and evaluation.
    Data collection → Analysis → Health assessment.
    Homeopathic point. Indicators reflect collective vitality.

45. Signs of Drug Addiction

Definition. Signs of drug addiction are physical and psychological features indicating dependence.

1. Craving for drug.
2. Loss of control.
3. Tolerance development.
4. Withdrawal symptoms.
5. Behavioural changes.
6. Neglect of duties.
7. Social isolation.
8. Financial problems.
9. Mood swings.
10. Health deterioration.
    Repeated use → Dependence → Addiction.
    Homeopathic point. Mental imbalance precedes addiction.

46. Diphtheria

Definition. Diphtheria is an acute bacterial infection caused by Corynebacterium diphtheriae.

1. Spread by droplets.
2. Affects throat commonly.
3. Pseudomembrane formation occurs.
4. Toxin causes complications.
5. Children are commonly affected.
6. Causes fever and sore throat.
7. Myocarditis is serious complication.
8. Immunization prevents disease.
9. Early treatment reduces mortality.
10. Isolation prevents spread.
    Infected person → Droplet spread → Susceptible host.
    Homeopathic point. Susceptibility determines severity.

47. Blindness

Definition. Blindness is loss of vision below defined level.

1. Major public health problem.
2. Causes include cataract.
3. Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness.
4. Glaucoma leads to blindness.
5. Trachoma is preventable cause.
6. Diabetes causes retinopathy.
7. Early detection prevents blindness.
8. Surgery restores vision in cataract.
9. Health education is important.
10. National programmes control blindness.
    Eye disease → Vision loss → Blindness.
    Homeopathic point. Early care preserves sensory vitality.

48. NTI Vaccine

Definition. NTI vaccine refers to vaccine produced at National Tuberculosis Institute.

1. Related to TB control.
2. Used in immunization programmes.
3. Supports national health efforts.
4. Quality controlled production.
5. Supplies vaccines nationwide.
6. Strengthens disease prevention.
7. Ensures vaccine availability.
8. Supports cold chain system.
9. Improves coverage.
10. Reduces disease burden.
    Production → Distribution → Immunization.
    Homeopathic point. Preventive measures complement resistance.

49. Sources of Health Information

Definition. Sources of health information provide data on health status.

1. Census data.
2. Civil registration system.
3. Sample surveys.
4. Hospital records.
5. Disease notification.
6. Health programme reports.
7. Research studies.
8. Surveillance systems.
9. Vital statistics.
10. International agencies.
    Data source → Analysis → Planning.
    Homeopathic point. Accurate observation guides holistic care.

50. Brief Natural History of Disease

Definition. Natural history of disease is progression of disease without intervention.

1. Begins with exposure.
2. Pre-pathogenesis phase exists.
3. Pathogenesis phase follows.
4. Subclinical stage occurs.
5. Clinical disease develops.
6. Recovery or disability occurs.
7. Death may result.
8. Host factors influence course.
9. Environment affects progression.
10. Basis of preventive levels.
    Exposure → Disease development → Outcome.
    Homeopathic point. Early stage intervention restores balance.

51. Vitamin C

Definition. Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin essential for tissue repair.

1. Required for collagen synthesis.
2. Deficiency causes scurvy.
3. Maintains gum health.
4. Enhances immunity.
5. Acts as antioxidant.
6. Found in citrus fruits.
7. Heat destroys vitamin C.
8. Daily intake required.
9. Deficiency leads to bleeding.
10. Prevented by fresh diet.
    Deficiency → Tissue damage → Scurvy.
    Homeopathic point. Adequate nutrition supports healing.

52. Epidemiology of Drug Dependence

Definition. Epidemiology of drug dependence studies distribution and determinants of addiction.

1. Common in adolescents.
2. Urban areas more affected.
3. Male predominance seen.
4. Peer pressure influences use.
5. Socioeconomic factors important.
6. Availability increases prevalence.
7. Psychological stress contributes.
8. Chronic relapsing condition.
9. Prevention focuses on education.
10. Rehabilitation reduces burden.
    Exposure → Dependence → Social impact.
    Homeopathic point. Mental susceptibility influences addiction.

53. ESIS

Definition. Employees State Insurance Scheme provides social security benefits.

1. Covers industrial workers.
2. Provides medical care.
3. Gives sickness benefits.
4. Covers maternity benefits.
5. Provides injury compensation.
6. Funded by contributions.
7. Improves worker health.
8. Reduces economic stress.
9. Prevents loss of wages.
10. Promotes social welfare.
    Employment → Contribution → Benefits.
    Homeopathic point. Social security supports wellbeing.

54. National Immunization Schedule

Definition. National Immunization Schedule provides timetable for vaccination.

1. Covers infants.
2. Covers children.
3. Covers pregnant women.
4. Prevents vaccine-preventable diseases.
5. Includes BCG.
6. Includes OPV.
7. Includes DPT.
8. Includes measles vaccine.
9. Ensures uniform coverage.
10. Reduces morbidity and mortality.
    Schedule → Vaccination → Immunity.
    Homeopathic point. Prevention reduces disease susceptibility.

55. Methods of Screening

Definition. Screening is identification of disease in early stage.

1. Mass screening covers large population.
2. Selective screening targets high risk.
3. Multiple screening tests used.
4. Simple tests preferred.
5. Cost-effective methods needed.
6. Early detection reduces mortality.
7. Follow-up is essential.
8. False positives may occur.
9. Sensitivity is important.
10. Specificity improves accuracy.
    Screening → Early detection → Treatment.
    Homeopathic point. Early detection preserves vitality.

56. Modes of Transmission

Definition. Modes of transmission are ways diseases spread.

1. Direct contact transmission.
2. Indirect contact transmission.
3. Droplet transmission.
4. Airborne transmission.
5. Vehicle-borne transmission.
6. Vector-borne transmission.
7. Vertical transmission.
8. Sexual transmission.
9. Common source outbreaks.
10. Control breaks transmission.
    Source → Mode → Host.
    Homeopathic point. Reducing exposure lowers susceptibility.

57. Prevalence Rate

Definition. Prevalence rate is proportion of existing cases in population.

1. Measures disease burden.
2. Includes old cases.
3. Includes new cases.
4. Expressed per population.
5. Reflects chronic diseases.
6. Influenced by incidence.
7. Influenced by duration.
8. Useful for planning services.
9. Indicates magnitude of problem.
10. Not measure of risk.
    Existing cases / Population → Prevalence.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic prevalence reflects deep imbalance.

58. Sampling Method

Definition. Sampling is selection of representative part of population.

1. Probability sampling is random.
2. Simple random sampling used.
3. Systematic sampling applied.
4. Stratified sampling improves accuracy.
5. Cluster sampling used in surveys.
6. Non-probability sampling exists.
7. Sample represents population.
8. Saves time and cost.
9. Used in research.
10. Reduces workload.
    Population → Sample → Study.
    Homeopathic point. Proper observation ensures valid conclusions.

59. Responsibility for Health

Definition. Responsibility for health is shared duty to maintain wellbeing.

1. Individual responsible for own health.
2. Family supports health habits.
3. Community promotes hygiene.
4. Government provides services.
5. Health workers guide care.
6. Education improves awareness.
7. Environment influences health.
8. Society shapes behaviour.
9. Participation improves outcomes.
10. Collective effort needed.
    Individual → Community → Government.
    Homeopathic point. Shared responsibility maintains harmony.

60. Iceberg Phenomenon of Disease

Definition. Iceberg phenomenon shows visible and hidden part of disease.

1. Clinical cases are visible.
2. Subclinical cases are hidden.
3. Latent cases exist below surface.
4. Carrier states are unseen.
5. Majority cases are hidden.
6. Surveillance detects iceberg.
7. Screening reveals hidden disease.
8. Prevention targets base.
9. Important in chronic disease.
10. Helps in planning control measures.
    Hidden cases → Detection → Control.
    Homeopathic point. Treating unseen causes restores balance.

61. Nutritional Problems in Children

Definition. Nutritional problems in children are conditions arising due to deficiency or imbalance of nutrients.

1. Protein energy malnutrition is common.
2. Vitamin A deficiency occurs frequently.
3. Iron deficiency anaemia is prevalent.
4. Iodine deficiency affects growth.
5. Poor dietary intake is major cause.
6. Recurrent infections worsen nutrition.
7. Poverty contributes significantly.
8. Faulty feeding practices seen.
9. Leads to growth retardation.
10. Preventable by proper nutrition.
    Poor intake → Deficiency → Malnutrition.
    Homeopathic point. Weak nutrition lowers vital force in children.

62. Indian Red Cross

Definition. Indian Red Cross Society is a humanitarian organization providing health and relief services.

1. Established in 1920.
2. Part of international Red Cross movement.
3. Provides disaster relief.
4. Runs blood banks.
5. Supports maternal and child health.
6. Provides first aid training.
7. Promotes health education.
8. Assists during epidemics.
9. Works with government.
10. Based on humanitarian principles.
    Need → Relief → Rehabilitation.
    Homeopathic point. Humanitarian service supports social wellbeing.

63. Mental Illness – Types and Causes

Definition. Mental illness is a disorder affecting thinking, mood, or behaviour.

1. Neurotic disorders include anxiety.
2. Psychotic disorders include schizophrenia.
3. Mood disorders include depression.
4. Substance-related disorders occur.
5. Stress is major cause.
6. Genetic factors play role.
7. Social problems contribute.
8. Brain disorders may cause illness.
9. Poor coping skills increase risk.
10. Early treatment improves outcome.
    Stress → Mental imbalance → Illness.
    Homeopathic point. Mental plane disturbance reflects inner disharmony.

64. Mumps

Definition. Mumps is an acute viral infectious disease affecting salivary glands.

1. Caused by mumps virus.
2. Spread by droplets.
3. Parotid gland swelling occurs.
4. Fever and pain present.
5. Common in children.
6. Incubation period is long.
7. Complications include orchitis.
8. Usually self-limiting.
9. Immunization prevents mumps.
10. Isolation reduces spread.
    Infected person → Droplet spread → Susceptible host.
    Homeopathic point. Epidemic susceptibility influences spread.

65. Warning Signs and Screening of Cancer

Definition. Warning signs are early symptoms indicating possible cancer.

1. Non-healing ulcer.
2. Lump in breast.
3. Unexplained weight loss.
4. Change in bowel habits.
5. Persistent cough.
6. Screening detects early cancer.
7. Pap smear screens cervical cancer.
8. Mammography detects breast cancer.
9. Early detection improves survival.
10. Health education is essential.
    Risk factors → Screening → Early diagnosis.
    Homeopathic point. Early recognition preserves vitality.

66. Immunization Schedule with Hazards of Immunization

Definition. Immunization schedule provides timing for vaccine administration.

1. Protects against infectious diseases.
2. Given to infants and children.
3. Includes vaccines like BCG.
4. OPV prevents polio.
5. DPT prevents diphtheria.
6. Hazards include fever.
7. Local reactions may occur.
8. Rare severe reactions seen.
9. Benefits outweigh risks.
10. Proper technique reduces hazards.
    Vaccination → Immunity → Disease prevention.
    Homeopathic point. Artificial immunity complements natural resistance.

67. Pictogram and Pie Chart

Definition. Pictogram and pie chart are methods of data presentation.

1. Pictogram uses symbols.
2. Easy to understand.
3. Suitable for lay public.
4. Pie chart shows proportions.
5. Represents data as sectors.
6. Total equals 360 degrees.
7. Useful for percentage data.
8. Visual comparison is easy.
9. Saves time in interpretation.
10. Used in health statistics.
    Data → Diagram → Interpretation.
    Homeopathic point. Clear presentation aids correct observation.

68. Risk Factor and Risk Groups

Definition. Risk factors are characteristics increasing chance of disease.

1. Age is a risk factor.
2. Sex influences disease occurrence.
3. Occupation increases exposure.
4. Lifestyle habits contribute.
5. Genetic factors play role.
6. Risk groups are vulnerable populations.
7. Children form risk group.
8. Elderly are high risk.
9. Pregnant women are vulnerable.
10. Identification helps prevention.
    Risk exposure → Disease occurrence.
    Homeopathic point. Susceptibility determines disease risk.

69. Vitamin D

Definition. Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin essential for bone health.

1. Helps calcium absorption.
2. Deficiency causes rickets.
3. Osteomalacia occurs in adults.
4. Sunlight is main source.
5. Found in fish oils.
6. Required for bone growth.
7. Deficiency causes bone deformity.
8. Prevented by sun exposure.
9. Supplementation prevents disease.
10. Essential in children.
    Deficiency → Bone changes → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Mineral balance maintains structural vitality.

70. WHO

Definition. World Health Organization is a UN agency for global health.

1. Established in 1948.
2. Headquarters in Geneva.
3. Directs international health efforts.
4. Sets health standards.
5. Supports disease control.
6. Provides technical assistance.
7. Promotes research.
8. Responds to emergencies.
9. Improves global health.
10. Works with member states.
    Assessment → Policy → Action.
    Homeopathic point. Global cooperation supports holistic health.

71. Pneumoconiosis

Definition. Pneumoconiosis is chronic lung disease due to dust inhalation.

1. Occupational disease.
2. Caused by silica dust.
3. Coal dust causes coal workers disease.
4. Asbestos causes asbestosis.
5. Long-term exposure needed.
6. Leads to lung fibrosis.
7. Breathlessness is symptom.
8. Irreversible disease.
9. Prevention is essential.
10. PPE reduces risk.
    Dust exposure → Lung damage → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic irritation weakens respiratory vitality.

72. Prospective Studies

Definition. Prospective study follows subjects forward in time.

1. Participants selected initially.
2. Exposure assessed at start.
3. Follow-up over period.
4. Incidence measured.
5. Temporal relationship established.
6. Less recall bias.
7. Expensive to conduct.
8. Time-consuming method.
9. Useful in epidemiology.
10. Strong evidence generated.
    Exposure → Follow-up → Outcome.
    Homeopathic point. Observation over time reveals disease pattern.

73. Experimental Epidemiology

Definition. Experimental epidemiology involves deliberate intervention.

1. Researcher controls exposure.
2. Includes clinical trials.
3. Randomization is used.
4. Control group included.
5. Tests preventive measures.
6. Tests therapeutic methods.
7. Provides strong evidence.
8. Ethical considerations important.
9. Used in vaccine trials.
10. Helps policy decisions.
    Intervention → Observation → Outcome.
    Homeopathic point. Controlled trials validate therapeutic action.

74. Types and Causes of Leprosy

Definition. Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease affecting skin and nerves.

1. Caused by Mycobacterium leprae.
2. Tuberculoid type occurs.
3. Lepromatous type occurs.
4. Borderline forms exist.
5. Spread by droplets.
6. Prolonged contact needed.
7. Poor immunity increases risk.
8. Causes nerve damage.
9. Early treatment prevents deformity.
10. MDT cures leprosy.
    Infection → Nerve damage → Disability.
    Homeopathic point. Individual susceptibility determines type.

75. Determinants and Assessment of Obesity

Definition. Obesity is excessive accumulation of body fat.

1. High calorie intake causes obesity.
2. Physical inactivity contributes.
3. Genetic factors influence.
4. Socioeconomic status affects obesity.
5. BMI assesses obesity.
6. Waist circumference measures risk.
7. Obesity increases NCD risk.
8. Lifestyle modification prevents obesity.
9. Diet control is essential.
10. Exercise reduces weight.
    Excess intake → Fat accumulation → Obesity.
    Homeopathic point. Lifestyle imbalance disturbs vital harmony.

76. Barriers in Health Communication

Definition. Barriers are obstacles in effective health communication.

1. Language barrier exists.
2. Cultural differences affect understanding.
3. Illiteracy reduces comprehension.
4. Poor listening hampers message.
5. Emotional barriers interfere.
6. Socioeconomic factors limit access.
7. Attitude of provider matters.
8. Lack of trust reduces impact.
9. Poor media use limits reach.
10. Removing barriers improves outcomes.
    Message → Barrier → Poor communication.
    Homeopathic point. Clear communication supports healing.

77. National Health Programmes

Definition. National health programmes address priority health problems.

1. Implemented by government.
2. Target major diseases.
3. Focus on prevention.
4. Provide treatment services.
5. Include maternal health programmes.
6. Include child health programmes.
7. Control communicable diseases.
8. Address non-communicable diseases.
9. Improve accessibility.
10. Enhance community health.
    Planning → Implementation → Evaluation.
    Homeopathic point. Organized care supports population health.

78. Xerophthalmia

Definition. Xerophthalmia is eye disorder due to vitamin A deficiency.

1. Affects conjunctiva.
2. Causes dryness of eye.
3. Night blindness is early sign.
4. Bitot spots appear.
5. Corneal ulcer may develop.
6. Leads to blindness.
7. Common in malnourished children.
8. Prevented by vitamin A.
9. Nutrition education important.
10. National programme controls xerophthalmia.
    Vitamin A deficiency → Eye damage → Blindness.
    Homeopathic point. Nutritional correction restores vision health.

79. Agents and Symptoms of Drug Addiction

Definition. Drug addiction involves dependence on psychoactive agents.

1. Alcohol is common agent.
2. Opioids cause addiction.
3. Cannabis is addictive.
4. Sedatives cause dependence.
5. Stimulants affect CNS.
6. Craving is symptom.
7. Tolerance develops.
8. Withdrawal symptoms occur.
9. Behavioural changes seen.
10. Health deterioration occurs.
    Use → Dependence → Addiction.
    Homeopathic point. Mental imbalance precedes addiction.

80. Occupational Cancers and Their Control

Definition. Occupational cancers are cancers caused by workplace exposures.

1. Asbestos causes lung cancer.
2. Benzene causes leukemia.
3. Vinyl chloride causes liver cancer.
4. Radiation increases cancer risk.
5. Chemical dyes cause bladder cancer.
6. Long exposure needed.
7. Early detection is important.
8. Use of PPE prevents exposure.
9. Substitution of safer chemicals helps.
10. Legislation controls hazards.
    Exposure → Cellular damage → Cancer.
    Homeopathic point. Removing causes allows natural balance.

81. Passive Immunity

Definition. Passive immunity is protection provided by transfer of ready-made antibodies.

1. Antibodies are obtained from another person.
2. Provides immediate protection.
3. Does not require immune response.
4. Short-lasting immunity.
5. Natural passive immunity occurs via placenta.
6. Breast milk provides antibodies.
7. Artificial passive immunity uses antisera.
8. Used in tetanus and rabies.
9. No immunological memory formed.
10. Used in emergencies.
    Antibody transfer → Immediate protection → Temporary immunity.
    Homeopathic point. External support aids weak vital response temporarily.

82. Complications of Measles

Definition. Complications of measles are adverse outcomes occurring during or after illness.

1. Otitis media is common.
2. Pneumonia occurs frequently.
3. Diarrhoea leads to dehydration.
4. Encephalitis is serious complication.
5. Malnutrition worsens disease.
6. Vitamin A deficiency increases risk.
7. Blindness may occur.
8. Secondary infections develop.
9. Higher mortality in children.
10. Early care reduces complications.
    Measles infection → Complications → Morbidity.
    Homeopathic point. Lowered resistance predisposes to complications.

83. Causes and Prevention of Blindness

Definition. Blindness is loss of vision affecting daily activities.

1. Cataract is leading cause.
2. Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness.
3. Glaucoma leads to irreversible loss.
4. Trachoma is preventable cause.
5. Diabetic retinopathy causes blindness.
6. Injuries contribute to blindness.
7. Early detection prevents vision loss.
8. Surgery corrects cataract.
9. Nutrition prevents deficiency blindness.
10. Health education reduces risk.
    Eye disease → Vision loss → Blindness.
    Homeopathic point. Early correction preserves sensory vitality.

84. Health for All

Definition. Health for All is a goal ensuring basic health services to all people.

1. Proposed by WHO.
2. Emphasizes primary health care.
3. Focuses on equity.
4. Stresses community participation.
5. Uses appropriate technology.
6. Promotes intersectoral coordination.
7. Targets essential health services.
8. Reduces health disparities.
9. Aims at social justice.
10. Improves quality of life.
    Primary care → Universal access → Health for all.
    Homeopathic point. Equity supports collective wellbeing.

85. Health and Its Dimensions

Definition. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing.

1. Physical dimension relates to body function.
2. Mental dimension relates to mind.
3. Social dimension involves relationships.
4. Emotional dimension affects feelings.
5. Spiritual dimension gives purpose.
6. Environmental dimension affects living conditions.
7. Vocational dimension affects work.
8. Health is dynamic.
9. Health is positive concept.
10. Multidimensional nature accepted.
    Balance of dimensions → Health.
    Homeopathic point. Harmony of all dimensions restores health.

86. Characteristics of a Mentally Healthy Person

Definition. Mental health is ability to cope with life stresses.

1. Positive self-esteem present.
2. Emotional stability seen.
3. Realistic perception of life.
4. Good coping skills.
5. Balanced emotional expression.
6. Socially well-adjusted.
7. Accepts responsibility.
8. Maintains relationships.
9. Productive at work.
10. Adaptable to change.
    Stress → Adaptation → Mental balance.
    Homeopathic point. Mental equilibrium reflects inner harmony.

87. Epidemiological Methods

Definition. Epidemiological methods study distribution and determinants of disease.

1. Descriptive methods describe disease.
2. Analytical methods test hypotheses.
3. Experimental methods test interventions.
4. Use population-based approach.
5. Identify risk factors.
6. Measure disease frequency.
7. Study patterns over time.
8. Guide prevention strategies.
9. Support public health planning.
10. Basis of disease control.
    Observation → Analysis → Action.
    Homeopathic point. Careful observation is core principle.

88. Case Control and Cohort Study Comparison

Definition. Case control and cohort studies are analytical epidemiological studies.

1. Case control starts with disease.
2. Cohort starts with exposure.
3. Case control is retrospective.
4. Cohort is prospective.
5. Case control studies rare diseases.
6. Cohort studies rare exposures.
7. Case control is economical.
8. Cohort is expensive.
9. Odds ratio used in case control.
10. Risk ratio used in cohort.
    Exposure ↔ Disease relationship studied.
    Homeopathic point. Different observation methods reveal causation.

89. Clinical Presentation of Cholera

Definition. Clinical presentation of cholera refers to symptoms and signs.

1. Sudden onset of diarrhoea.
2. Rice-water stools seen.
3. Profuse fluid loss occurs.
4. Vomiting present.
5. Severe dehydration develops.
6. Muscle cramps occur.
7. Thirst is intense.
8. Shock may develop.
9. No fever usually.
10. Rapid treatment saves life.
    Diarrhoea → Dehydration → Shock.
    Homeopathic point. Collapse reflects sudden vital loss.

90. Causes and Control of Cancer

Definition. Cancer is uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells.

1. Tobacco causes many cancers.
2. Alcohol increases risk.
3. Radiation exposure causes cancer.
4. Occupational chemicals cause cancer.
5. Infections contribute to cancer.
6. Early detection improves survival.
7. Screening detects early cancer.
8. Lifestyle modification prevents cancer.
9. Treatment reduces mortality.
10. Health education is essential.
    Risk factors → Cellular change → Cancer.
    Homeopathic point. Removing causes restores balance.

91. Immunizing Agents

Definition. Immunizing agents are substances inducing immunity.

1. Live attenuated vaccines used.
2. Killed vaccines used.
3. Toxoids provide immunity.
4. Subunit vaccines exist.
5. Recombinant vaccines used.
6. Passive immunizing agents include antisera.
7. Monoclonal antibodies used.
8. Used in prevention programmes.
9. Reduce disease incidence.
10. Require proper storage.
    Administration → Immune response → Protection.
    Homeopathic point. Artificial aids support resistance.

92. Methods of Presentation of Statistical Data

Definition. Presentation of data is systematic display of information.

1. Textual presentation uses words.
2. Tabular presentation uses tables.
3. Diagrammatic presentation uses charts.
4. Graphical presentation shows trends.
5. Bar diagrams used.
6. Pie charts show proportions.
7. Line graphs show changes.
8. Pictograms used for public.
9. Simplifies interpretation.
10. Aids decision making.
    Data → Presentation → Understanding.
    Homeopathic point. Clear display aids correct judgment.

93. Dynamics of Disease Transmission

Definition. Dynamics of transmission explains spread of disease.

1. Involves agent factors.
2. Host susceptibility important.
3. Environment influences spread.
4. Source of infection needed.
5. Mode of transmission exists.
6. Incubation period affects spread.
7. Infectivity determines rate.
8. Herd immunity reduces spread.
9. Control breaks chain.
10. Surveillance monitors transmission.
    Agent → Host → Environment → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Collective susceptibility governs spread.

94. Clinical Features of Chickenpox

Definition. Chickenpox is an acute viral disease with rash.

1. Fever is initial symptom.
2. Rash appears in crops.
3. Vesicular lesions seen.
4. Rash starts on trunk.
5. Lesions at different stages.
6. Itching is severe.
7. Mild disease in children.
8. Complications rare.
9. Highly contagious.
10. Recovery gives immunity.
    Infection → Rash → Recovery.
    Homeopathic point. Mild course reflects good vitality.

95. Methods of Presentation of Data

Definition. Data presentation conveys statistical information clearly.

1. Textual method used.
2. Tabular form common.
3. Bar diagram used.
4. Pie chart shows parts.
5. Line graph shows trends.
6. Histogram shows distribution.
7. Frequency polygon used.
8. Pictogram used for laymen.
9. Improves clarity.
10. Saves time.
    Data → Display → Interpretation.
    Homeopathic point. Proper observation aids understanding.

96. Causes and Prevention of Mental Ill Health

Definition. Mental ill health is disturbance in mental functioning.

1. Stress is major cause.
2. Genetic factors involved.
3. Social problems contribute.
4. Substance abuse causes illness.
5. Brain disorders affect mind.
6. Early counselling prevents illness.
7. Stress management is helpful.
8. Family support is important.
9. Healthy lifestyle prevents illness.
10. Awareness reduces stigma.
    Stress → Mental imbalance → Illness.
    Homeopathic point. Mental harmony prevents disease.

97. Silicosis and Its Prevention

Definition. Silicosis is lung disease due to silica dust inhalation.

1. Occupational lung disease.
2. Common in miners.
3. Long exposure required.
4. Causes lung fibrosis.
5. Breathlessness occurs.
6. Irreversible condition.
7. Dust control prevents disease.
8. PPE reduces exposure.
9. Regular check-ups needed.
10. Health education important.
    Silica exposure → Lung damage → Silicosis.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic irritation lowers vitality.

98. Classification of Epidemiological Studies

Definition. Epidemiological studies are methods to study disease.

1. Descriptive studies describe disease.
2. Analytical studies test hypotheses.
3. Experimental studies involve intervention.
4. Cross-sectional studies exist.
5. Case control studies included.
6. Cohort studies included.
7. Clinical trials included.
8. Field trials conducted.
9. Community trials done.
10. Guide public health action.
    Study design → Observation → Conclusion.
    Homeopathic point. Methodical study reveals causation.

99. Descriptive Epidemiology

Definition. Descriptive epidemiology studies distribution of disease.

1. Describes person characteristics.
2. Describes place distribution.
3. Describes time trends.
4. Answers who affected.
5. Answers where disease occurs.
6. Answers when disease occurs.
7. Forms basis of hypothesis.
8. Uses rates and ratios.
9. Simple and useful.
10. Guides further research.
    Person → Place → Time.
    Homeopathic point. Observation is foundation of healing.

100. Prevention and Control of Obesity

Definition. Obesity is excessive accumulation of body fat.

1. High calorie intake causes obesity.
2. Sedentary lifestyle contributes.
3. Genetic factors influence obesity.
4. Obesity increases NCD risk.
5. Diet modification prevents obesity.
6. Regular exercise controls weight.
7. Behaviour change is essential.
8. Health education important.
9. Early intervention effective.
10. Community support helps control.
    Excess intake → Weight gain → Obesity control.
    Homeopathic point. Lifestyle balance restores vital harmony.

101. DPT Vaccine

Definition. DPT vaccine is a combined vaccine protecting against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus.

1. It is a triple antigen vaccine.
2. Protects against three bacterial diseases.
3. Given in infancy.
4. Administered intramuscularly.
5. Part of national immunization schedule.
6. Provides active immunity.
7. Requires cold chain maintenance.
8. Booster doses are needed.
9. Reduces childhood mortality.
10. Mild adverse reactions may occur.
    Vaccination → Antibody formation → Protection.
    Homeopathic point. Strengthens resistance at early age.

102. Registration of Vital Events

Definition. Registration of vital events is continuous recording of births and deaths.

1. It is a legal requirement.
2. Records births systematically.
3. Records deaths systematically.
4. Helps calculate vital rates.
5. Provides demographic data.
6. Useful for health planning.
7. Maintained by civil authority.
8. Improves population statistics.
9. Ensures identity and rights.
10. Basis of national records.
    Event occurrence → Registration → Data generation.
    Homeopathic point. Accurate records help community health planning.

103. Concept of Causation

Definition. Causation explains factors responsible for occurrence of disease.

1. Disease has multiple causes.
2. Single cause is rare.
3. Factors act together.
4. Includes agent factors.
5. Includes host factors.
6. Includes environmental factors.
7. Based on web of causation.
8. Helps identify risk factors.
9. Guides prevention strategies.
10. Fundamental to epidemiology.
    Multiple factors → Interaction → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Disease arises from disturbed internal balance.

104. Environmental Factors, Symptoms, Prevention of Drug Abuse

Definition. Drug abuse is harmful use of psychoactive substances.

1. Peer pressure influences abuse.
2. Easy availability increases abuse.
3. Urbanization contributes to abuse.
4. Poverty predisposes abuse.
5. Behavioural changes seen.
6. Physical dependence develops.
7. Mental symptoms occur.
8. Health education prevents abuse.
9. Community support is essential.
10. Legal control reduces abuse.
    Exposure → Habit formation → Dependence.
    Homeopathic point. Environmental stress weakens vital control.

105. Lead Poisoning

Definition. Lead poisoning is toxicity due to excessive lead exposure.

1. Occupational exposure common.
2. Children are highly vulnerable.
3. Causes abdominal pain.
4. Causes anemia.
5. Affects nervous system.
6. Learning difficulties occur.
7. Chronic exposure is harmful.
8. Removal of source is essential.
9. Early detection prevents damage.
10. Environmental control is preventive.
    Lead exposure → Absorption → Toxic effects.
    Homeopathic point. Chronic toxins lower vitality.

106. Association and Causation

Definition. Association is statistical relationship between two factors.

1. Association does not imply causation.
2. Causation indicates cause-effect relationship.
3. Association may be indirect.
4. Confounding factors exist.
5. Strength of association assessed.
6. Temporal relationship required.
7. Biological plausibility important.
8. Consistency supports causation.
9. Experimental evidence confirms causation.
10. Used in epidemiology.
    Association → Evaluation → Causation.
    Homeopathic point. True cause must be identified for cure.

107. Procedure and Uses of Descriptive Epidemiology

Definition. Descriptive epidemiology studies distribution of disease.

1. Collection of data done.
2. Classification by person done.
3. Classification by place done.
4. Classification by time done.
5. Calculation of rates done.
6. Patterns of disease identified.
7. Helps measure disease burden.
8. Identifies high-risk groups.
9. Generates hypotheses.
10. Guides health services planning.
    Data collection → Description → Interpretation.
    Homeopathic point. Observation precedes understanding.

108. Epidemiological Triad, Diagnosis, Control and Prevention of Tetanus

Definition. Tetanus is an acute infectious disease caused by Clostridium tetani.

1. Agent is Clostridium tetani.
2. Host susceptibility depends on immunity.
3. Environment includes contaminated wounds.
4. Diagnosis is clinical.
5. Muscle rigidity seen.
6. Spasms are characteristic.
7. Immunization prevents disease.
8. Wound care is important.
9. Booster doses required.
10. Health education essential.
    Agent → Host → Environment → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Injury with low resistance invites disease.

109. Types of Accidents and Domestic Accidents

Definition. Accidents are unexpected events causing injury.

1. Road accidents are common.
2. Occupational accidents occur at work.
3. Domestic accidents occur at home.
4. Falls are frequent at home.
5. Burns common in kitchen.
6. Children are high risk.
7. Elderly are vulnerable.
8. Poor lighting increases risk.
9. Safety education prevents accidents.
10. Environmental modification reduces risk.
    Hazard → Exposure → Accident.
    Homeopathic point. Prevention protects life force.

110. Adverse Events after Vaccination

Definition. Adverse events after vaccination are unwanted effects following immunization.

1. Mild fever is common.
2. Local pain occurs.
3. Swelling at site seen.
4. Severe reactions are rare.
5. Allergic reactions possible.
6. Proper storage reduces events.
7. Correct technique important.
8. Surveillance is essential.
9. Reporting improves safety.
10. Benefits outweigh risks.
    Vaccination → Reaction → Recovery.
    Homeopathic point. Individual sensitivity influences response.

111. Notification of Diseases

Definition. Notification is reporting of specific diseases to authorities.

1. It is mandatory for listed diseases.
2. Early detection is achieved.
3. Helps control outbreaks.
4. Enables prompt action.
5. Improves surveillance.
6. Data aids planning.
7. Legal backing exists.
8. Protects community health.
9. Includes infectious diseases.
10. Essential public health tool.
    Disease occurrence → Notification → Control measures.
    Homeopathic point. Early awareness prevents spread.

112. Primary Health Care

Definition. Primary health care is essential health care for all.

1. Based on equity.
2. Uses appropriate technology.
3. Community participation involved.
4. Intersectoral coordination required.
5. Focus on prevention.
6. First contact care.
7. Accessible to all.
8. Affordable services.
9. Comprehensive care provided.
10. Backbone of health system.
    Basic services → Community access → Improved health.
    Homeopathic point. Simple care meets majority needs.

113. Thiamine

Definition. Thiamine is a water-soluble vitamin essential for metabolism.

1. Sources include cereals.
2. Pulses contain thiamine.
3. Nuts are good sources.
4. Needed for carbohydrate metabolism.
5. Supports nerve function.
6. Deficiency causes beriberi.
7. Cardiac symptoms seen.
8. Neurological symptoms occur.
9. Balanced diet prevents deficiency.
10. Early treatment reverses symptoms.
    Low intake → Deficiency → Disease.
    Homeopathic point. Nutritional balance maintains vitality.