anatomy
1. Upper limb is composed of scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
2. Scapula is divided into three parts: acromion, coracoid process, and glenoid cavity.
3. Humerus is divided into three parts: head, shaft, and condyles.
4. Radius and ulna are long bones of the forearm.
5. Carpal bones form the wrist.
6. Metacarpals form the base of the hand.
7. Phalanges form the fingers.
Describe mechanisms and types of fractures
1. Mechanisms of fractures: → Direct blow: a direct force applied to the bone, resulting in a fracture. → Indirect blow: a force applied to a muscle or ligament, resulting in a fracture. → Stress fracture: a fracture caused by repetitive stress or overuse.
2. Types of fractures:
  1. Closed fracture: a fracture without an open wound.
  2. Open fracture: a fracture with an open wound.
  3. Comminuted fracture: a fracture where the bone is broken into multiple pieces.
  4. Greenstick fracture: a fracture where the bone is partially broken.
  5. Stress fracture: a fracture caused by repetitive stress or overuse.
  6. Displaced fracture: a fracture where the bone is out of place.
  7. Non-displaced fracture: a fracture where the bone is in place.
Identify clinical features
1. Pain and swelling at the fracture site.
2. Limited mobility and decreased range of motion.
3. Deformity and abnormal alignment of the bone.
4. Bruising and discoloration around the fracture site.
5. Numbness and tingling in the affected limb.
Perform systematic examination
1. Inspection: → Look for deformity and abnormal alignment of the bone. → Check for swelling, bruising, and discoloration.
2. Palpation: → Check for tenderness and pain at the fracture site. → Check for abnormal mobility and decreased range of motion.
3. Range of motion: → Check for limited mobility and decreased range of motion.
4. Neurovascular examination: → Check for numbness and tingling in the affected limb. → Check for decreased sensation and reflexes.
Assess neurovascular status
1. Check for numbness and tingling in the affected limb.
2. Check for decreased sensation and reflexes.
3. Check for decreased pulse and blood flow.
4. Check for decreased capillary refill.
Interpret radiographs
1. X-rays: → Show the alignment and position of the bone. → Show the presence of any hardware or implants.
2. CT scans: → Show the internal structure of the bone. → Show any fractures or injuries not visible on X-rays.
3. MRI scans: → Show the soft tissues and any injuries not visible on X-rays or CT scans. → Show any nerve or vascular damage.
Homoeopathic therapeutic approach
1. Arnica montana: for trauma, pain, and swelling.
2. Hypericum perforatum: for nerve damage and numbness.
3. Ruta graveolens: for bone fractures and injuries.
4. Calendula officinalis: for wound healing and tissue repair.
5. Bellis perennis: for soft tissue injuries and bruising.

EXAMINATION OF INJURIES OF UPPER LIMB